Graphene and the production of graphene

ABSTRACT

Compositions comprising hydrogenated and dehydrogenated graphite comprising a plurality of flakes. At least one flake in ten has a size in excess of ten square micrometers. For example, the flakes can have an average thickness of 10 atomic layers or less.

PRIORITY

This application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.15/642,086, filed Jul. 5, 2017, now allowed, which is a Continuationunder 35 U.S.C. § 111(a) of International Application No.PCT/EP2016/073451, filed Sep. 30, 2016, which claims the priority ofGerman Patent Application No. 102016202202.4, filed Feb. 12, 2016 in theGerman Patent and Trademark Office. The entire contents of all of theseapplications are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND

This disclosure relates to graphene and the production of graphene,including an apparatus and a method for expansion of graphite tographene.

Idealized graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of graphite that isinfinitely large and impurity free. In the real world, graphene is offinite size and includes impurities. Notwithstanding theseimperfections, the physical properties of real-world graphene aredominated by sp2-hybridized carbon atoms that are surrounded by threeother carbon atoms disposed in a plane at angles of 120° from oneanother, thereby approximating an infinite sheet of pure carbon. As aresult of this structure, graphene has a number of very unusual physicalproperties, including very high elastic modulus-to-weight ratios, highthermal and electrical conductivity, and a large and nonlineardiamagnetism. Because of these unusual physical properties, graphene canbe used in a variety of different applications, including conductiveinks that can be used to prepare conductive coatings, printedelectronics, or conductive contacts for solar cells, capacitors,batteries, and the like.

Although idealized graphene includes only a single layer of carbonatoms, graphene structures that include multiple carbon layers (e.g., upto 10 layers, or up to 6 layers) can provide comparable physicalproperties and can be used effectively in many of these sameapplications. For the sake of convenience, both single atomic layergraphene and such multi-layered structures with comparable physicalproperties are referred to as “graphene” herein.

There are a variety of different types of graphene and othercarbonaceous flake materials. Basic characteristics of some of thesematerials are now described.

Chemical Vapor Deposition:

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) can be used to produce graphenemonolayers that have large flake sizes and low defect densities. In somecases, CVD yields graphene with multiple layers. In some cases, CVD canyield graphene that has macroscopic flake sizes (e.g., approaching 1 cmin length).

Examples of the use of CVD to produce graphene can be found in Science342: 6159, p. 720-723 (2013), Science 344: 6181, p. 286-289 (2014), andScientific Reports 3, Art. No.: 2465 (2013). According to the abstractof this last example, “[c]hemical vapor deposition of graphene ontransition metals has been considered as a major step towards commercialrealization of graphene. However, fabrication based on transition metalsinvolves an inevitable transfer step which can be as complicated as thedeposition of graphene itself.”

Natural Graphite:

Graphite occurs in nature and can be found in crystalline flake-likeform that includes several tens to thousands of layers. The layers aretypically in an ordered sequence, namely, the so-called “AB stacking,”where half of the atoms of each layer lie precisely above or below thecenter of a six-atom ring in the immediately adjacent layers. Becausegraphite flakes are so “thick,” they display physical properties thatdiffer from those of graphene and many of these physical properties arerelevant to different applications. For example, graphite flakes arevery weak in shear (i.e., the layers can be separated mechanically) andhave highly anisotropic electronic, acoustic, and thermal properties.Due to the electronic interaction between neighboring layers, theelectrical and thermal conductivity of graphite is lower than theelectrical and thermal conductivity of graphene. The specific surfacearea is also much lower, as would be expected from a material with aless planar geometry. Further, in typical flake thicknesses, graphite isnot transparent to electromagnetic radiation at a variety of differentwavelengths. In some cases, graphite flakes can have macroscopic flakesizes (e.g., 1 cm in length).

An example of a characterization of graphite-based systems by Ramanspectroscopy can be found in Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 9, p. 1276-1290(2007).

Graphene Oxide:

Chemical or electrochemical oxidation of graphite to graphite oxidefollowed by exfoliation can be used to produce graphene oxide flakes.One of the more common approaches was first described by Hummers et al.in 1958 and is commonly referred to as “Hummer's method.” J. Am. Chem.Soc. 80 (6) p. 1339-1339 (1958). In some cases, the graphene oxide cansubsequently be partially reduced to remove some of the oxygen.

However, oxidative etching of graphite not only separates graphenelayers from each other, but also attacks the hexagonal graphene lattice.In general, the resulting graphene oxide is defect-rich and, as aresult, displays reduced electrical- and thermal-conductivity, as wellas a reduced elastic modulus. In addition, the in-plane etching ofgraphene flakes typically leads to relatively smaller lateraldimensions, with flake sizes being below few micrometers. In some cases,the average size of graphene oxide flakes in a polydisperse sample canbe increased using physical methods such as, e.g., centrifugation.

Examples of methods for producing and/or handling graphene oxide can befound in Carbon 50(2) p. 470-475 (2012) and Carbon 101 p. 120-128(2016).

Liquid Phase Exfoliation:

Flakes of carbonaceous material can be exfoliated from graphite in asuitable chemical environment (e.g., in an organic solvent or in amixture of water and surfactant). The exfoliation is generally driven bymechanical force provided by, e.g., ultrasound or a blender. Examples ofmethods for liquid phase exfoliation can be found in Nature Materials 13p. 624-630 (2014) and Nature Nanotechnology 3, p. 563-568 (2008).

Although the researchers who work with liquid phase exfoliationtechniques often refer to the exfoliated carbonaceous flakes as“graphene,” the thickness of the vast majority of flakes produced bysuch exfoliation techniques often appears to be in excess of 10 layers.This can be confirmed using, e.g., Raman spectroscopc techniques. Forexample, in Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 97, 187401, an asymmetric shape ofthe Raman band around 2700 reciprocal centimeters indicates that theseflakes are thicker than 10 layers. Indeed, the predominant thickness ofsuch flakes often appears to be in excess of 100 layers, which can beconfirmed by x-ray diffraction, scanning probe microscopy or scanningelectron microscopy. As a result of this large thickness, the materialproperties often do not correspond to the properties expected fromgraphene. At 10 layers, properties like thermal conductivity approachthe values of bulk graphite with AB stacking, as described in Nat.Mater. 2010, 9, 555-558. Properties like the specific surface area alsoscale with the inverse of the flake thickness.

Exfoliation of Expanded Graphite:

Graphite can be expanded using thermal techniques such as, e.g.,microwave irradiation. Flakes of carbonaceous material can be exfoliatedfrom the expanded graphite in a suitable chemical environment (e.g., inan organic solvent or in a mixture of water and surfactant). Theexfoliation is generally driven by mechanical force such as, e.g.,ultrasound or a shear force from a blender. Examples of methods forliquid phase exfoliation of expanded graphite can be found in J. Mater.Chem. 22 p. 4806-4810 (2012) and WO 2015131933 A1.

Although the researchers who work with exfoliation of expanded graphiteoften refer to the exfoliated carbonaceous flakes as “graphene,” thethickness of most of these flakes also appears to be in excess of 10layers and even in excess of 100 layers. Analytical techniques fordetermining the thickness of flakes exfoliated from expandedgraphite—and the consequences of this thickness—are similar to thosedescribed above with respect to liquid phase exfoliation.

Reduction of Graphite:

Graphite can be reduced and graphene exfoliated in strongly reductiveenvironments via, e.g., Birch reduction in lithium. As graphene isincreasingly reduced, more and more carbon atoms become hydrogenated andsp3-hybridized. In theory, the atomic C/H ratio can approach one, i.e.,the resulting material becomes graphane rather than graphene. Examplesof methods for the reduction of graphite can be found in J. Am. Chem.Soc. 134, p. 18689-18694 (2012) and Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52, p. 754-757(2013).

Lithium and other reductants that can be used to reduce graphite arevery strong, difficult to handle, and difficult to dispose.

Electrochemical Expansion:

Graphene can also be produced by electrochemical cathodic treatment.Examples of methods for electrochemical expansion can be found inWO2012120264 A1 and J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, p. 8888-8891 (2011). Thereductive environment can also induce hydrogenation of the resultingflakes, as described in Carbon 83, p. 128-135 (2015) and WO2015019093A1. In general, electrochemical expansion at conventional conditionsoften cannot produce a significant amount of graphene flakes with athickness below 10 layers, which can be confirmed using Ramanspectroscopy.

For the sake of validating the various analytical techniques describedherein, various materials have been used as references.

A first such reference material is reduced graphene oxide obtained fromGraphenea S. A. (Avenida Tolosa 76, 20018—San Sebastian SPAIN.)According to Graphenea S. A.'s product datasheet (available athttps://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0191/2296/files/Graphenea_rGO_Datasheet_2014-03-25.pdf72923),this sample is 77-87 atomic % carbon, 0-1 atomic % hydrogen, 0-1 atomic% nitrogen, 0 atomic % sulfur, and 13-22 atomic % oxygen. It is believedthat the reduced graphene oxide in this sample was produced by amodified Hummer's and subsequent chemical reduction. For the sake ofconvenience, this material is referred to as “GRAPHENEA RGO” herein.

A second such reference material was obtained from Thomas Swan & Co.Ltd. (Rotary Way, Consett, County Durham, DH8 7ND, United Kingdom) underthe trademark “ELICARB GRAPHENE.” The datasheet for this material isavailable at http://www.thomas-swan.co.uk/advanced-materials/elicarb %C2% AE-graphene-products/elicarb%C2% AE-graphene. According to thisdatasheet, the graphene in this sample was produced by solventexfoliation and particle size is in the 0.5 to 2.0 micrometer range. Forthe sake of convenience, this material is referred to as “ELICARBGRAPHENE” herein.

A third such reference material is expanded graphite (EG), produced bythermal expansion of conventional graphite intercalation compounds thatare typically produced by chemical oxidation. One example expandedgraphite is “L2136,” a non-commercial material made available by SchunkHoffmann Carbon Technologies AG (Au 62, 4823 Bad Goisern amHallstättersee, Austria). The company does not disclose details aboutthe manufacturing at the present time. For the sake of convenience, thismaterial is referred to as “L2136” herein.

SUMMARY

Graphene and the production of graphene, including an apparatus and amethod for expansion of graphite to graphene, are described herein.

In a first aspect, a composition includes dehydrogenated graphitecomprising a plurality of flakes. The flakes have at least one flake in10 having a size in excess of 10 square micrometers, an averagethickness of 10 atomic layers or less, and a defect densitycharacteristic of at least 50% of μ-Raman spectra of the de-hydrogenatedgraphite collected at 532 nm excitation with a resolution better than1.8 reciprocal centimeters having a D/G area ratio below 0.5.

In a second aspect, a composition includes dehydrogenated graphitecomprising a plurality of flakes having at least one flake in 10 havinga size in excess of 10 square micrometers, a coefficient ofdetermination value of 2D single peak fitting of μ-Raman spectra of thede-hydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitation with aresolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters larger than 0.99 formore than 50% of the spectra, and a defect density characteristic of atleast 50% of μ-Raman spectra of the de-hydrogenated graphite collectedat 532 nm excitation with a resolution better than 1.8 reciprocalcentimeters having a D/G area ratio below 0.5.

The first or second aspect can include one or more of the followingfeatures. More than 60%, for example, more than 80%, or more than 85% ofμ-Raman spectra of the de-hydrogenated graphite can have the coefficientof determination value larger than 0.99. More than 40%, for example,more than 50% or more than 65% of the μ-Raman spectra of thede-hydrogenated graphite can have the coefficient of determination valuelarger than 0.995. At least one flake in six can have a size in excessof 10 square micrometers, for example, at least one flake in four. Atleast one flake in ten can have a size in excess of 25 squaremicrometers, for example, at least two flakes in ten. The averagethickness can be seven atomic layers or less, for example, five atomiclayers or less. The defect density can be characteristic of at least 80%of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.5, for example,at least 95% of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.5.The defect density can be characteristic of at least 80% of thecollected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.5, for example, atleast 95% of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.5.The defect density can be characteristic of at least 50% of thecollected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.2, for example, atleast 70% of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.2.The defect density can be characteristic of at the average D/G arearatio being below 0.8, for example, below 0.5 or below 0.2. Thecomposition can be a particulate powder of dehydrogenated graphiteflakes, for example, a black particulate powder of dehydrogenatedgraphite flakes. The plurality of the flakes of the dehydrogenatedgraphite can be wrinkled, crumpled, or folded, for example, wherein theplurality of the flakes are assembled into a 3-dimensional structure.The full width half maximum of the G peak in μ-Raman spectra of thede-hydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitation with aresolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters can be larger than 20reciprocal centimeters, for example, larger than 25 reciprocalcentimeters or larger than 30 reciprocal centimeters. The μ-Ramanspectra of the de-hydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitationwith a resolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters can show abroad peak in the range between 1000 and 1800 reciprocal centimeterswith a full width half maximum of more than 200 reciprocal centimeters,for example more than 400 reciprocal centimeters. More than 1%, forexample, more than 5% or more than 10% of the flakes can be of athickness of more than 10 atomic layers. The composition can be acomposite, for example, wherein the composite further includes activatedcarbon or wherein the composite further includes a polymer. Thecomposition can be a composite and at least 30%, for example, at least50% or at least 70% % of sp3 hybridized carbon sites of the compositionare one or more of functionalized with a non-hydrogen chemical group,cross-linked with sp3 hybridized carbon sites of another flakes, orotherwise chemically modified.

An electrode can include the composite of the first or the secondaspect. The electrode can be part of a battery or an electrochemicalcapacitor, for example, a lithium battery, a lithium-ion battery, asilicon anode battery, or a lithium sulfur battery.

In a third aspect, a composition can include hydrogenated graphitecomprising a plurality of flakes. The flakes can have at least one flakein 10 having a size in excess of 10 square micrometers, an averagethickness of 10 atomic layers or less, and a defect densitycharacteristic of μ-Raman spectra of the hydrogenated graphite collectedat 532 nm excitation with a resolution better than 1.8 reciprocalcentimeters and an excitation power below 2 mW at the focus of an 100×objective having an average D/G area ratio being between 0.2 and 4,wherein the majority of the defects are reversible hydrogenation ofsp3-hybridized carbon sites away from the edges of the flakes.

In a third aspect, a composition can include a reversibly hydrogenatedgraphite comprising a plurality of flakes having at least one flake in10 having a size in excess of 10 square micrometers, a coefficient ofdetermination value of 2D single peak fitting of μ-Raman spectra of thegraphite after thermal treatment in inert atmosphere at 2 mbar and 800°C., collected at 532 nm excitation with a resolution better than 1.8reciprocal centimeters, of larger than 0.99 for more than 50% of thespectra, and a defect density characteristic of μ-Raman spectra of thehydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitation with a resolutionbetter than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters and an excitation power below 2mW at the focus of an 100× objective having an average D/G area ratiobeing between 0.2 and 4. The majority of the defects are reversiblehydrogenation of sp3-hybridized carbon sites away from the edges of theflakes.

The third aspect and the fourth aspect can include one or more of thefollowing features. More than 60%, for example, more than 80%, or morethan 85% of μ-Raman spectra of the graphite can have the coefficient ofdetermination value larger than 0.99. More than 40%, for example, morethan 50% or more than 65% of the μ-Raman spectra of the graphite canhave the coefficient of determination value larger than 0.995. At leastone flake in six can have a size in excess of 10 square micrometers, forexample, at least one flake in four. At least one flake in ten can havea size in excess of 25 square micrometers, for example, at least twoflakes in ten. The average thickness can be seven atomic layers or less,for example, five atomic layers or less. The defect density can becharacteristic of at least 50% of the μ-Raman spectra collected at 532nm excitation with a resolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimetersand an excitation power below 2 mW at the focus of an 100× objectivehaving a D/G area ratio above 0.5, for example, at least 80% or at least95% of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio above 0.5. Thedefect density can be characteristic of at least 50% of the collectedspectra having a D/G area ratio above 0.8, for example, at least 60% orat least 90% of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio above 0.8.The defect density can be characteristic of the average D/G area ratiobeing between 0.4 and 2, for example, between being 0.8 and 1.5. Atleast 60%, for example, at least 75% of the defects can be reversiblehydrogenation of sp3-hybridized carbon sites away from the edges of theflakes. The composition can be a composite and at least 5%, for example,at least 10%, of sp3 hybridized carbon sites of the composition can beone or more of a) functionalized with a chemical group, b) cross-linkedwith sp3 hybridized carbon sites of another flakes, or c) otherwisechemically modified.

In a fifth aspect, an apparatus for the expansion of the graphite tographene includes at least one container provided for receiving anelectrolyte, at least one anode and at least one cathode, wherein thecathode contains diamond or consists thereof.

The fifth aspect can include one or more of the following features. Theapparatus can include a separator which separates the anode from thecathode. The separator can be in contact with the surface of the anodeor the separator can be diamond and/or polytetrafluoroethylene and/orAl₂O₃ and/or ceramic and/or quartz and/or glass contains or consiststhereof. The can include a drive means with which the separator, andoptionally the anode, are rotatable. The apparatus can include aseparator, and optionally an anode, that are displaceably mounted sothat the distance between the cathode and the separator is changeable inoperation of the apparatus. The apparatus can include an electricvoltage supply set up to apply a DC voltage of from about 5 V to about60 V between the anode and cathode, or from about 15 V to about 30 V,wherein the voltage is optionally pulsed. The apparatus can include afeed apparatus by which electrolyte and graphite particles can be fed asa dispersion into the at least one container and/or a dischargeapparatus by which electrolyte and graphene flakes are dischargable fromthe at least one container as a dispersion.

In a sixth aspect, a method for the expansion of the graphite tographene includes introducing graphite particles and at least oneelectrolyte into at least one container, applying an electrical voltageto at least one anode and at least one cathode so that the graphite isexpanded, wherein the cathode contains or consists of diamond andhydrogen is produced at the cathode.

The sixth aspect can include one or more of the following features.Hydrogen can be intercalated in the graphite particles and/orchemisorbed on the graphite particles, so that graphene flakes areexfoliated from the graphite particles. The anode can be separated fromthe cathode by a separator. The separator can contain or consist ofdiamond and/or polytetrafluoroethylene and/or Al₂O₃ and/or ceramicand/or quartz and/or glass. The separator, and optionally the anode, canbe set into rotation and/or in that the separator, and optionally theanode are shifted so that the distance between the cathode and theseparator changes during operation of the apparatus. An electricalvoltage from about 5 V to about 60 V, or an electrical voltage fromabout 10 V to about 50 V, or an electrical voltage from about 12 V toabout 45 V, or an electric voltage from about 15 V to about 30 V can beapplied between the anode and cathode. Graphite particles can besupplied continuously to the container and/or that graphene flakes areremoved continuously from the container. The graphene flakes can bephoto-treated for dehydrogenation, for example, wherein thephoto-treating can include illuminating the graphene flakes with visiblelight, UV, or microwaves, wherein more that 50% of hydrogenated sp3hybridized carbon sites are de-hydrogenated. The method can include asubsequent thermal treatment of the graphene flakes at a temperaturefrom about 100° C. to about 800° C., or from about 300° C. to about 650°C., and for a period of from about 1 min to about 60 min, or from about15 min to about 40 min. The graphene flakes can have an average surfacearea of more than 10 um2 or more than 50 um2 or of more than 100 um2.

The details of one or more implementations are set forth in theaccompanying drawings and the description below. Other features,objects, and advantages will be apparent from the description anddrawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of an apparatus for the expansionof graphite.

FIG. 1a is a schematic representation of the hydrogenated graphite andgraphene produced by the apparatus of FIG. 1 and the impact of varioussubsequent processing steps on that material.

FIGS. 2a, 2b are scanning electron micrographs of graphite after theelectrochemical expansion.

FIG. 2c are scanning electron micrographs of ELICARB GRAPHENE.

FIG. 2d are scanning electron micrographs of GRAPHENEA RGO.

FIG. 3 is a Raman spectrum of graphite particles that had been expandedand thermally treated.

FIG. 4a is a spatially-resolved μ-Raman microscopy image of a graphenesample produced by the apparatus of FIG. 1.

FIG. 4b is a spatially-resolved μ-Raman microscopy image of a sample ofGRAPHENEA RGO.

FIG. 4c is a spatially-resolved μ-Raman microscopy image of a sample ofELICARB GRAPHENE.

FIG. 4d is a spatially-resolved μ-Raman microscopy image of a sample ofexpanded graphite L2136.

FIG. 5 is a graph of a pair of overlaid Raman spectra of hydrogenatedgraphite layers at a single location.

FIG. 6a shows 2D peak spectroscopic data and a least-square error fittedpeak for graphite suitable for use as a starting material in theapparatus of FIG. 1.

FIG. 6b shows 2D peak spectroscopic data and a least-square error fittedpeak for ELICARB GRAPHENE.

FIG. 6c shows 2D peak spectroscopic data and a least-square error fittedpeak for a first sample of separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers.

FIG. 6d shows 2D peak spectroscopic data and a least-square error fittedpeak for a second sample of separated and dehydrogenated graphitelayers.

Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 shows an apparatus 1 that can be used to produce graphene usingthe methods described herein. Apparatus 1 basically includes a container10 that is bounded by a container wall 101. Container 10 can have around base and a generally cylindrical shape.

In the illustrated embodiment, a cathode 3 is disposed in container 10and either forms the bottom surface or substantially fills the entirebottom surface of container 10. Cathode 3 includes a base body 31 thatcontains, for example, a metal, an alloy, or porous silicon. A diamondlayer is deposited on the base body 31 and may be produced, e.g., bychemical vapor deposition. The diamond layer of the cathode 3 may have athickness of about 0.5 um to about 20 to um or from about 2 to about 5um. The diamond layer of the cathode 3 may optionally be doped using ann- or p-type dopant to reduce the electric resistance of the cathode. Insome implementations, boron may be used as a dopant.

An anode 4 is also disposed in container 10. The anode has a shape andsize that substantially occupies the entire base of the container 10. Inthis manner, a largely homogeneous electrical field is generated incontainer 10 and a large percentage of the container volume can beutilized in the production of the graphene.

In some implementations, anode 4 can include or be formed of a metal oran alloy. In some implementations, anode 4 may also include or be formedof diamond. The diamond may be mounted on a base body, as described withregard to the cathode, or implemented as free-standing diamond layer.

An optional separator 5 is also disposed in container 10. Separator 5may include or be formed of, for example, polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE), diamond, Al2O3 or other material. Separator 5 may include or beformed of a dielectric. Separator 5 can be provided with holes or withpores that, for example, have a diameter of less than 10 um, less than 5um, less than 1 micrometer, or less than 0.5 um. This allows the passageof electrolyte (for example, liquid water) and ions through separator 5while preventing particles of graphite or graphene that are found withincontainer 10 from coming into contact with anode 4.

In the illustrated implementation, separator 5 separates a cathodechamber 30 from an anode chamber 40. In other implementations, theseparator 5 can be deposited directly on the anode 4 or fixed to theanode 4, for example, by adhesive bonding. Accordingly, anode chamber 40can be omitted in some implementations.

In operation, at least one electrolyte is disposed in the container 10between anode 4 and cathode 3. In some implementations, the electrolytemay be an aqueous electrolyte, and may optionally contain substances forincreasing the electrical conductivity such as, for example, diluteacids or salts. In other implementations, the electrolyte may include orbe formed of at least one organic solvent. In still otherimplementations, the electrolyte can include propylene carbonate and/ordimethylformamide and/or organic salts, whose ions inhibit the formationof a stable crystal lattice through charge delocalization and stericeffects so that they are liquid at temperatures below 100° C.

Further, graphite in the form of particles 2 is disposed in the cathodechamber 30 during operation of apparatus 1. The graphite particles 2 aredispersed in the electrolyte.

With this arrangement, an electrical voltage of between approximately 5V and approximately 60 V, or between approximately 15 V andapproximately 30 V is applied between cathode 3 and anode 4 by anelectric voltage source 6. This generates an electric field in theelectrolyte.

With such a high electric voltage present, the water and/or an organicsolvent present in the electrolyte can be dissociated with highefficiency. This produces hydrogen at cathode 3 and oxygen at anode 4.The graphite disposed in the cathode chamber 30 takes up this hydrogenby intercalation of individual atoms or molecules between the latticeplanes of the graphite lattice and/or chemisorption of individual atomsor molecules on the surface. In other words, the graphite becomeshydrogenated. Separator 5 thereby prevents graphite from coming intocontact with anode 4, e.g., by penetrating into the anode chamber 40.Thus, the graphite disposed in container 10 is kept away from theresulting oxygen at anode 4 and oxygen does not intercalate in thegraphite.

By rotation of separator 5 in container 10, a shear flow can be producedin the cathode chamber 30 which leads to mixing of the electrolyte andthe dispersed graphite. This mixing can provide a uniform treatment ofthe graphite particles.

Furthermore, apparatus 1 may include an optional feed apparatus 11through which electrolyte and graphite can be introduced as a dispersioninto the cathode chamber 30. Moreover, apparatus 1 may include anoptional discharge apparatus 12 through which hydrogenated graphite 7can be discharged. Mass transport from a feed apparatus 11 that isgenerally concentric with the base of the container 10 to a dischargeapparatus 12 that is arranged at a peripheral rim of container 10 may beencourages by the rotation of separator 5. In this way, apparatus 1 canbe operated continuously by continuously feeding graphite particles 2through feed apparatus 11 and discharging hydrogenated graphite 7through discharge apparatus 12.

FIG. 1a is a schematic representation of the hydrogenated graphiteproduced by apparatus 1 and the impact of various subsequent processingsteps on that material.

In particular, reference numeral 105 designates the hydrogenatedgraphite suspension discharged from apparatus 1. As discussed above,suspension 105 includes hydrogenated graphite layers 106 withintercalated and/or chemisorbed hydrogen. At least some of thechemisorbed hydrogen is bound to sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107 awayfrom the edges of layers 106. In the schematic representation of FIG. 1a, hydrogenated graphite layers 106 are schematically illustrated asrelatively longer curved or straight lines and the sp3-hybridized carbonsites 107 are schematically illustrated as short lines that branch offthe longer lines representing layers 106.

The suspension 105 discharged from apparatus 1 also includes organicsolvents or salts 108 from the electrolyte of the electrochemical cell.In the schematic representation of FIG. 1a , the organic solvents orsalts 108 are schematically illustrated as small “x's.”

Hydrogenated graphite layers 106 are electrochemically expanded relativeto the graphite that was input into apparatus 1. In particular, thehydrogenation of the input graphite is sufficient to cause at leastpartial delamination of adjacent layers, leading to “electrochemicalexpansion” of the graphite without complete physical separation of alllayers from one another. In the schematic representation of FIG. 1a ,the electrochemical expansion is schematically illustrated by showinggroups of layers 106 in physical proximity to one another. In someinstances, nearest-neighbor layers 106 include interstitialhydrogenation at sites 107 and/or organic solvents or salts 108. Inother instances, nearest-neighbor layers 106 do not include interstitialhydrogenation at sites 107 and/or organic solvents or salts 108.

Notwithstanding the non-idealities of the finite size of layers 106, theincomplete separation of layers 106, and the presence of impurities suchas sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107, hydrogenated graphite layers 106 candisplay graphene-like properties. In particular, the specific surfacearea and the mechanical strength of hydrogenated graphite layers 106 canbe very high. Signatures characteristic of AB-stacked layers in x-rayscattering or Raman scattering are strongly reduced or absent.

In some implementations, organic solvents or salts from the electrolytecan be removed from hydrogenated graphite layers 106 by washing orrinsing with suitable solvents, e.g., ethanol or acetone.

The hydrogenated graphite suspension after washing/rinsing is designatedby reference numeral 110 in FIG. 1a . After washing/rinsing, the numberof sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107 in hydrogenated graphite layers 106will generally remain effectively unchanged. Thus, in the schematicrepresentation, layers 106 continue to include hydrogenation sites 107in suspension 110.

Further, although there may be some increased delamination of adjacentlayers 106, e.g., due to shearing forces that arise during washing orrinsing, the primary effect of the washing or rinsing is to removeorganic solvents or salts 108. Thus, in the schematic representation, atleast some layers 106 are shown in close proximity to one another.

In some implementations, rather than removing organic solvents or salts108 by washing/rinsing, organic solvents or salts 108 can be removed byselectively evaporating the organic solvents or salts 108 fromsuspension 105 in a distillation process. In some implementations, sucha distillation process can be combined with a thermal treatment processthat yields suspension 115, as described below.

In some implementations, both a washing/rinsing and a distillationprocess can be used to remove organic solvents or salts 108.

Regardless of how suspension 110 is arrived at, the hydrogenatedgraphite layers 106 continue to display graphene-like properties,including high specific surface area and mechanical strength and theabsence of signatures of characteristic of AB-stacked layers.

Either suspension 105 or suspension 110 can be treated using a thermaltreatment process to yield a dried hydrogenated graphite material 115.The thermal treatment process is generally conducted in air or inertatmosphere below 300° C. The thermal treatment process generallyincludes a rapid heating and drives the suspending liquid into the gasphase. Since some liquid may also be found between adjacent hydrogenatedgraphite layers 106, the evaporation of this liquid generally drives theadjacent hydrogenated graphite layers 106 apart and “expands” thegraphite. Material 115 includes hydrogenated graphite layers 106 thatinclude sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107. After thermal treatment, thenumber of sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107 in hydrogenated graphitelayers 106 will generally remain effectively unchanged. Thus, in theschematic representation, layers 106 continue to include hydrogenationsites 107 in hydrogenated graphite material 115.

Further, although there may be some incidental increased delamination ofadjacent layers 106, the primary effect of the thermal treatment isremoval of surrounding organic electrolyte and expansion of thehydrogenated graphite layers 106. The macroscopic density ofhydrogenated graphite layers 106 in material 115 is thus generallysignificantly lower than the macroscopic density of hydrogenatedgraphite layers 106 in either suspension 105 or suspension 110.

After thermal treatment, the hydrogenated graphite layers 106 in driedcarbonaceous material 115 continue to display graphene-like properties,including high specific surface area and mechanical strength and theabsence of signatures of characteristic of AB-stacked layers.

In some implementations, dried hydrogenated graphite material 115 issubject to a dehydrogenating thermal treatment that yields anunseparated dry dehydrogenated graphite material 120. Thedehydrogenating thermal treatment generally occurs at temperatures inexcess of 300° C. and strips hydrogen from hydrogenated graphite layers106 to yield dehydrogenated graphite layers 116. Dehydrogenated graphitelayers 116 are generally 1 to 10 atomic layers or lattice planes thickand have a low hydrogen content. In some implementations,dehydrogenation can occur at decreased oxygen partial pressure, forexample in nitrogen or argon gas at 2-20 mbar.

In the schematic representation, dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 arenot separated from one another and do not include any hydrogenationsites 107. However, in the real world, dehydrogenated graphite layers116 will generally not be completely hydrogen free. Rather,dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 would typically include some quantityof residual hydrogenation sites 107 or other sp3 carbon moieties thatare characteristic of the manufacturing process.

Nevertheless, after the dehydrogenating thermal treatment,de-hydrogenated graphite material 120 not only continues to display thegraphene-like properties that were previously discussed (i.e., highspecific surface area and mechanical strength and the absence ofsignatures of characteristic of AB-stacked layers), but also additionalgraphene-like properties characteristic of sp2-hybridization of nearlyall the carbon in dehydrogenated graphite layers 116. For example,chemical defects visible by Raman scattering are strongly reduced.Further, optical transparency decreases. This decrease is associatedwith a decrease in the band gap. Also, the electron conductivity ofdehydrogenated graphite layers 116 is higher than the electronconductivity of layers 106.

In some implementations, the unseparated dried hydrogenated graphitematerial 115 is subject to a separation treatment that yields aseparated and hydrogenated graphite suspension 125. For example, in someimplementations, dried hydrogenated graphite material 115 can bedispersed in suitable liquids, e.g., with the aid of ultrasound or sheerforce, to fully separate the flakes from each other. In someimplementations, water with various surfactants, mesitylene,dimethylsulfoxide, benzene or mixtures thereof can be used.

Hydrogenated graphite suspension 125 includes separated and hydrogenatedgraphite layers 106 that include sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107. Afterseparation, the number of sp3-hybridized carbon sites 107 inhydrogenated graphite layers 106 will generally remain effectivelyunchanged. Thus, in the schematic representation, layers 106 continue toinclude hydrogenation sites 107 in hydrogenated graphite material 115.

In the schematic representation, every single layer 106 is separatedfrom other layers 106. However, in the real world, at least some layers106 will generally not be separated from every other layer 106.Nevertheless, after the separation treatment, the layers 106 inhydrogenated graphite suspension 125 display graphene-like properties,including high specific surface area and mechanical strength and theabsence of signatures of characteristic of AB-stacked layers. Further,individual layers 106 can be microscopically identified. These layers106 are often wrinkled and crumpled, which indicates that they are onlyfew atomic layers thick.

Based on these properties, it is believed that hydrogenated graphitesuspension 125 would be a useful addition to polymer and othercomposites. In particular, hydrogenated graphite suspension 125 providesthin, large flakes while retaining some sp3-hybridized carbon. Suchsp3-hybridized carbon sites may be useful, e.g., as reaction sites forforming chemical bonds or other interactions with other constituents ofthe composite.

In some implementations, the separated and hydrogenated graphite layers106 of hydrogenated graphite suspension 125 is subject to ade-hydrogenating thermal treatment that yields a separated andde-hydrogenated graphite sample 130. For example, the liquid in graphitesuspension 125 can be evaporated (e.g., by drop-casting) to provide dryhydrogenated graphite layers 106. The dry hydrogenated graphite layers106 can be subject to the dehydrogenating thermal treatment. As anotherexample, graphite suspension 125 can be enclosed in a pressure-resistantchamber and the entire suspension 125 can be subject to thedehydrogenating thermal treatment. The separated and dehydrogenatedgraphite 116 in graphite sample 130 can thus either be dried or inliquid suspension.

The de-hydrogenating thermal treatment can include subjecting sample totemperatures in excess of 300° C. and low oxygen partial pressures, forexample, in nitrogen or argon gas at 2-20 mbar.

In the schematic representation, separated and dehydrogenated graphitelayers 116 of sample 130 do not include any hydrogenation sites 107.However, in the real world, separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers116 will generally not be completely hydrogen free. Rather,dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 would typically include some quantityof residual hydrogenation sites 107 or other sp3 carbon moieties thatare characteristic of the manufacturing process. Further, in theschematic representation, every single dehydrogenated graphite 116 ofsample 130 is separated from other layers 116. However, in the realworld, at least some dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 will generallynot be separated from every other layer 116. For example, in someimplementations, 1% or more of layers 116 may have a thickness of morethan 10 atomic layers, for example, more than 5% or even more than 10%of the flakes may have a thickness of more than 10 atomic layers. Asanother example, in some implementations, 1% or more of layers 116 mayhave a thickness of more than 50 or even 100 atomic layers, for example,more than 5% or even more than 10% of the flakes may have a thickness ofmore than 50 or 100 atomic layers.

Nevertheless, the separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 ofsample 130 display graphene-like properties, including a high specificsurface area, mechanical strength, and an absence of signatures ofcharacteristic of AB-stacked layers, as well as graphene-like propertiescharacteristic of sp2-hybridization of nearly all the carbon indehydrogenated graphite layers 116. For example, chemical defectsvisible by Raman scattering are strongly reduced, optical transparencydecreases, and the electron conductivity of graphite layers 116 is high.Moreover, individual dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 can bemicroscopically identified. These separated and dehydrogenated graphitelayers 116 are often wrinkled and crumpled, which indicates that theyare only few atomic layers thick.

As an end result, separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 canbe referred to as graphene in which many of the individual particleshave a thickness of only 1 to 10 atomic layers and lateral dimensionsthat are inherited from the starting graphite material (often well inexcess of 100 micrometers) are produced. In contrast with othertechniques, the graphene includes a low number of layers (i.e., has asmall thickness) and displays graphene-like properties rather thanproperties of bulk graphite. Indeed, the method is capable of producingrelatively large graphene flakes with an average area of over 10 um²,more than 50 um², or more than 100 um². This method and apparatus thusallow high quality graphene to be produced in large quantities. Theaverage surface area can be determined by transmission electronmicroscopy or scanning electron microscopy of a sample with a pluralityof graphene flakes, wherein the size of the individual graphene flakesis determined by image analysis and statistical analysis.

Further, a sample 130 of separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers116 can display several characteristics that distinguish it fromgraphene and graphite material samples produced by other methods. Forexample, a sample 130 of separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers116 can be produced to yield a particulate powder that is black in colorand relatively easy to handle in a variety of different contexts. Forexample, the powder can be admixed in bulk into liquids—with or withoutdispersants—to form suspensions such as inks or polymer composites.

Further, as discussed above, graphite layers 116 of a sample 130 ofseparated and dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 that are supported by asurface can appear under scanning electron microscopy or other imagingmodality with wrinkles that arise due to crumpling or folding of layers116. Not only does such wrinkling bespeak the low number of layers andsmall thickness of layers 116, the wrinkling also indicates that thefabrication of 3-dimensional structures in which graphite layers 116 arenot confined to a single plane may be possible.

FIGS. 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d are scanning electron micrographs of differentsamples at magnifications indicated by the respective scale bars.

FIG. 2a are scanning electron micrographs of expanded and dehydrogenatedgraphite layers 116 after the electrochemical expansion using the methoddescribed above and after concurrent thermal expansion andde-hydrogenation by heating in argon atmosphere at 2 mbar and 770° C. Anapproximately vertical separation of the graphene into thin layers alongthe c-axis can be seen in the figure and there is no evidence ofin-plane separation and fracturing of planes. It is thus believed thatelectrochemical and thermal expansion acts specifically to cause c-axisseparation and the hexagonal crystalline structure and domain size fromthe source graphite is preserved in the product graphene flakes. Theseindividual layers are similar to the lattice planes of graphite crystal,i.e., the lateral structure of the graphite that is used as the startingmaterial remains.

FIGS. 2b, 2c, 2d are scanning electron micrographs of samples that weredip-coated from dispersions onto polished, boron-doped conductivesilicon <100> wafers. In particular, FIG. 2b shows graphene layers thatwere exfoliated from expanded graphite similar to that shown in FIG. 2aand dispersed in a solvent and then dip-coated onto the siliconsubstrate. The large lateral extent of graphene is clearly visible and,in this particular example, is more than 100 um.

In contrast, FIG. 2c shows graphene obtained from a commercial ELICARBGRAPHENE dispersion. As shown, the graphene displays an average size ofabout 1 um and no flakes with a diameter larger than 2 micrometers wereobserved.

FIG. 2d shows commercial GRAPHENEA RGO, dip-coated from a dispersion ona silicon substrate. As shown, individually-distinguishable flakes ofthe reduced graphene oxide display a diameter below 3 micrometers.

FIG. 3 is a Raman spectrum of graphite particles that had been expandedand thermally treated as described above with reference to FIG. 1 andillustrated in FIG. 1a . The symmetry and low full width half maximum ofthe 2D band indicates an expansion of the graphite to graphene flakeswith a thickness of less than 10 atomic layers. The low relativeintensity of the D band confirms desorption of hydrogen and a low numberof structural defects in the graphene flake lattice.

FIGS. 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d are spatially-resolved μ-Raman microscopy images ofdifferent samples on a substrate. In particular, FIG. 4a is an image ofa graphene sample produced by the electrochemical expansion of graphiteto graphene using an approach consistent with the method describedabove. FIG. 4b is an image of a sample of GRAPHENEA RGO. FIG. 4c is animage of a sample of ELICARB GRAPHENE. FIG. 4d is an image of a sampleof expanded graphite L2136.

The handling of the samples in FIGS. 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d prior to imaging waskept nearly identical as possible so that a direct comparison of theimages could be meaningful. In particular, the four different sampleswere dispersed in mesitylene and then drop-cast on different locationson a single conductive, boron-doped, polished Si <100> wafer. Prior todrop-casting, the dispersions were placed in a soft ultrasound bath at˜40 W/l to improve homogeneity. Mesitylene was evaporated from thedrop-castings at 300° C. on a hotplate. Since the boiling point of themesitylene is approximately 165° C., this is believed to haveeffectively removed mesitylene from the samples. To distribute theflakes, deionized water was added on the hot wafer surface and a secondwafer was placed on top until all water had evaporated. Excessivematerial was removed by soft ultrasound treatment in deionized water for3 minutes at ˜40 W/l. All images are taken from the respective locationson the single wafer.

To image the four different materials on the sample, a Renishaw InViaμ-Raman spectroscopy system was fitted with a 100× objective and set toan excitation wavelength of 532 nanometers. The Raman shift with aresolution of at least 1.8 reciprocal centimeters between 1265 and 2810reciprocal centimeters was mapped with 1+/−0.1 micrometer spatialresolution over dimensions ranging between 20000 and 40000 squaremicrometers.

A baseline subtracted from the images was determined by fitting thespectra with a 6th order polynomial. Raman shifts between 1270 and 1720reciprocal centimeters and between 2580 and 2790 reciprocal centimeterswere excluded from the baseline fitting. The intensity of the G peak isrepresented in the images. To determine the G peak intensity, thespectra were fitted to a Pseudo-Voigt peak shape at positions between1500 and 1700 reciprocal centimeters provided that maximal full width athalf maximum of 110 reciprocal centimeters and minimum intensity of 0counts was present. The images were analyzed using ImageJ(https.//imagej.nih.gov/ij/docs/intro.html) software.

As shown, in the image of the graphene sample produced byelectrochemical expansion of graphite to graphene (FIG. 4a ), flakeshaving an area larger than 15 square micrometers were consistentlyproduced. Indeed, of the flakes that are resolved using this approach,at least 10% had an area larger than 15 square micrometers, for example,at least 15% or at least 20% had an area larger than 15 squaremicrometers. In some instances, at least 3% had an area larger than 100square micrometers, for example, at least 5% or at least 8% had an arealarger than 100 square micrometers.

Of the flakes that had an area larger than 15 square micrometers, theaverage area of the large flakes was between 100 and 1000 squaremicrometers, for example, between 150 and 700 square micrometers. Thesize of the flakes appears to be largely inherited from the dimensionsof the graphite used as a starting material and introduced intoapparatus 1 (FIG. 1).

In contrast, the image of GRAPHENEA RGO (FIG. 4b ) does not appear tounambiguously include flakes having an area larger than 15 squaremicrometers. In a histogram of an image spanning 32500 squaremicrometers, a single flake having an area larger than 15 squaremicrometers was included. This single flake however may also be anartifact resulting from incomplete dispersion of the graphene oxide onthe substrate. Regardless of whether this single flake is real or anartifact, the average area of the larger flakes is well below 20 squaremicrometers.

The image of the ELICARB GRAPHENE (FIG. 4c ) does not show any flakeshaving an area larger than 15 square micrometers. This is fullyconsistent with the manufacturer's claim of a particle size in the 0.5to 2.0 micrometer range.

The image of the expanded graphite L2136 (FIG. 4d ) shows flakes havingan area larger than 15 square micrometers. However, microscopyinspection indicates that these flakes are rather thick compared tographene samples. Raman spectroscopy of the 2D band can be used tomeasure flake thickness, i.e., the average number of continuously ABstacked graphene layers. Details regarding the procedure for evaluatingthe Raman spectra of the materials in FIG. 4a-d to measure flakethickness are given below.

In Raman scattering, an indirect measure of the number of atomic layersis the peak symmetry of the 2D band. For example, in Phys. Rev. Lett.2006, 97, 187401, it is described that an asymmetric shape of the Ramanband around 2700 reciprocal centimeters indicates that flakes arethicker than 10 atomic layers and that mechanically exfoliated graphenedisplays asymmetric peak shapes even for flakes of two or more atomiclayers. Although it is believed that a direct, statistical determinationof the average number of atomic layers has yet to be developed, thesymmetry of the 2D band is believed to be the most suitable techniquefor relative comparisons of the average number of atomic layers indifferent samples.

Peak “symmetry” can be quantified by a variety of different approaches.For example, the coefficient of determination for a Pseudo-Voigt peakfitting of a single peak is believed to be a relatively robust approach.For this purpose, a standardized procedure for preparing, fitting, andevaluating graphene Raman spectra has been developed and made availableat https://github.com/graphenstandards/raman. For the evaluations belowrelease v1.0 has been used and the permalink to the used script ishttps://github.com/graphenestandards/raman/blob/5cb74ed87545082bd587e4319c061ea2c50e3a6f/DtoG-2Dsymetry.ipynb.Use of this script allows recorded Raman data to be evaluated in atransparent and uniform manner and allows comparisons between valuesobtained in different laboratories.

Raman spectroscopy of graphite and graphene also allows qualitativeidentification of structural and chemical defects in the two-dimensionalcrystal of carbon atoms. Such defects can be seen in the so called“defect” D peak at positions between 1280 and 1450 reciprocalcentimeters and the “graphite” G peak at positions between 1560 and 1610reciprocal centimeters. The G peak results from in-plane vibrations ofsp2-bonded carbon atoms. The D peak results from out-of-planevibrations. The underlying Raman scattering event requires a defect formomentum conservation and is attributable to structural and chemicaldefects. This D peak is absent from Raman spectra of defect-freegraphite or graphene as a result of the conservation of momentum.

Researchers have attempted to quantitatively determine defect densityfrom the ratio of the area of the D peak to the area of the G peak, forexample, in Nano Lett. 11, p. 3190-3196 (2011) and Spectrosc. Eur. 27,p. 9-12 (2015). It is believed that the relationship is non-linear and amaximum exists for intermediate defect densities. A D/G peak intensityratio below 0.5, together with a single, distinct 2D band is believed toindicate a low defect density, for example, below 1×10¹¹ defects persquare centimeter. This evaluation, however, does not take effects likestress (e.g., from wrinkles) into account.

Even though the assignment of a defect density on an absolute scale isdifficult (particularly for large flakes with a significant amount ofmechanical deformation), a relative comparison of the D/G area ratio ofdifferent materials is straightforward and believed to be a goodindication of material properties which depend on the defect ratio,including electrical and thermal conductivity. For example, astandardized procedure for preparing, fitting, and evaluating grapheneRaman spectra has been developed and made available athttps://github.com/graphenestandards/raman. For the evaluations belowrelease v1.0 has been used. The permalink to the used script ishttps://github.com/graphenestandards/raman/blob/5cb74ed87545082bd587e4319c061ea2c50e3a6f/DtoG-2Dsymetry.ipynb. Use of the script allows Raman data to beevaluated in a transparent and a uniform manner and allows comparisonsof values obtained in different laboratories.

In further detail, Raman spectra are recorded using 532 nm laserexcitation between 1260 and 2810 reciprocal centimeters and a spectralresolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters. The excitation poweris set to values that avoid excessive local heating, for example, below2 mW in the focus of a 100× objective. The spectral range for D and Gband evaluation is cut to between 1266 and 1750 reciprocal centimeters.A second order polynomial was fitted to the data, omitting the range ofthe D band between 1280 and 1450 reciprocal centimeters and the G bandbetween 1480 and 1700 reciprocal centimeters. The result was subtractedfrom the data. Spectra with a signal-to-noise ratio (determined as thesquared variance of the data divided by the squared variance of theresiduals of the baseline fit) below 5000 were discarded, since it isbelieved that they do not allow for reliable evaluation of the peak.

It is believed to be necessary that more than 100 spectra should remainfor sufficiently meaningful results to be obtained.

A first Pseudo-Voigt peak for the D band is fitted by a least-squaresminimization to the baseline corrected data, with the center constrainedbetween 1335 and 1360 reciprocal centimeters, the full width at halfmaximum constrained to 10 to 160 reciprocal centimeters, the Gaussian toLorentzian fraction constrained to 0.01 to 1, and the amplitudeconstrained to positive values. A second Pseudo-Voigt peak for the Gband is fitted by a least-squares minimization to the baseline correcteddata, with the center constrained between 1560 and 1610 reciprocalcentimeters, the full width at half maximum constrained to 10 to 240reciprocal centimeters, the Gaussian to Lorentzian fraction constrainedto 0.01 to 1, and the amplitude to positive values. The area of theresulting first Pseudo-Voigt peak is divided by the area of the secondPseudo-Voigt peak and the result is the respective D/G area ratio.

The procedure yields a value for the D/G area ratio, where, for example,values below 0.8, values below 0.5 or values below 0.2 are indicationsof a medium, low or very low defect density, respectively.

The spatially resolved Raman measurements shown in FIG. 4 were evaluatedaccording to the procedure described above. The results for the D/G arearatios are show in TABLE 1.

TABLE 1 D/G area ratios of the materials from De-hydrogenated Hydro-graphite layers genated 116 (after a heat graphite treatment of 30 L2136layers minutes at GRAPHENEA expanded 106 800° C. in N₂) RGO graphite D/G< 0.8 11.69%  100.0% 0.00% 99.96% D/G < 0.5 0.08% 99.72% 0.00% 99.74%D/G < 0.2 0.00% 76.49% 0.00% 95.34% Average 1.1 ± 0.2 0.17 ± 0.06 1.3 ±0.1 0.07 ± 0.07 D/G

The material produced by electrochemical expansion and separation ofindividual flakes, corresponding to hydrogenated graphite layers 106drop-cast from suspension 125 in FIG. 1a and dried at 300° C., displaysa relatively high D/G area ratio, with less than 12% showing a D/G arearatio below 0.8 and an average value of 1.1±0.2. The average D/G arearatio of hydrogenated graphite layers 106 from suspension 125 may thusbe lower than the average D/G area ratio of GRAPHENEA RGO, which yieldedan average D/G area ratio of 1.3±0.1. Both average D/G area ratios aresignificantly higher than the value for expanded graphite L2136, whichyielded an average D/G area ratio of 0.07±0.07.

These results are believed to indicate that the hydrogenated graphitelayers 106 drop-cast from suspension 125 and dried at 300° C. andGRAPHENEA RGO have a higher structural or chemical defect density thanthe defect density of graphite L2136 and the defect density ofdehydrogenated graphite layers 116. For example, the defect density ofthe flakes 106 in suspension 125 and GRAPHENEA RGO is believed to behigher than 1×10¹¹ defects per square centimeter or, for example, higherthan 1×10¹⁴ defects per square centimeter (Spectrosc. Eur. 2015, 27,9-12).

Hydrogenated graphite layers 106 from suspension 125 can be converted todehydrogenated graphite layers 116 by drop-casting hydrogenated graphitelayers 106 on a wafer and thermally treating the same wafer at 800° C.for 30 minutes in nitrogen atmosphere at 2 mbar. After the thermaltreatment, a D/G area ratio of 0.17±0.06 can be measured in a singlelocation. This indicates that more than 50% of the defects inhydrogenated graphite layers 106 before the thermal de-hydrogenationwere chemical defects associated with chemisorption of hydrogen.Hydrogen chemisorption is known to be reversible (Science 2009, 323,610-613). In contrast, graphene oxide generally does not exhibit D/Garea ratios below 0.5 even after thermal reduction at comparabletemperatures (Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 3583-3587). This is consistent withthe measured D/G area ratio for GRAPHENEA RGO, which is reduced grapheneoxide and still yielded a D/G area ratio larger than one.

On the other hand, these results are believed to indicate that thedefect density of dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 is less than 1×10¹¹defects per square centimeter, for example, less than 5×10¹⁰ defects persquare centimeter or less than 3×10¹⁰ defects per square centimeter.

Further, although the defect density is quite low, some dehydrogenatedgraphite layers 116 retain characteristics that may be indicative ofresidual defects. For example, in some implementations, the full widthhalf maximum of the G peak in μ-Raman spectra collected at 532 nmexcitation with a resolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters islarger than 20 reciprocal centimeters, for example larger than 25reciprocal centimeters or larger than 30 reciprocal centimeters. Asanother example, in some implementations, the μ-Raman spectra of thede-hydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitation with aresolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters show a broad peak inthe range between 1000 and 1800 reciprocal centimeters with a full widthhalf maximum of more than 200 reciprocal centimeters, for example, morethan 400 reciprocal centimeters.

In summary, a significant reduction of factor two or more of the RamanD/G area ratio can be obtained by thermal treatments of hydrogenatedgraphite layers such as hydrogenated graphite layers 106 at temperaturesin excess of 300° C. The reductions in Raman area D/G area ratio arebelieved to be attributable to de-hydrogenation. The reduction in theRaman D/G area ratio can be, for example, by a factor of more thanthree, or, for example, by a factor of more than five. The reduction inRaman D/G area ratio is believed to be indicative of the production of agraphene with a low defect density. For example, in someimplementations, more than 50% of the statistical spectra display a D/Garea ratio below 0.8, for example more than 90% display a D/G area ratiobelow 0.8. In some implementations, 50% or more (e.g., more than 90%)display a D/G area ratio below 0.5. In some implementations, 20% or more(e.g., more than 50%) display a D/G area ratio below 0.2. The averageD/G area ratio of at least 100 statistical spectra evaluated by theprocedure described above in smaller than 0.8, for example, smaller than0.5 or smaller than 0.2.

Along with probing the defect density, Raman scattering of graphene alsoprovides an indirect measure of the number of atomic layers is using thepeak symmetry of the 2D band. For example, in Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 97,187401, it is described that an asymmetric shape of the Raman bandaround 2700 reciprocal centimeters indicates that flakes are thickerthan 10 atomic layers and that mechanically exfoliated graphene displaysasymmetric peak shapes even for flakes of two or more atomic layers.Although it is believed that a direct, statistical determination of theaverage number of atomic layers has yet to be developed, the symmetry ofthe 2D band is believed to be the most suitable technique for relativecomparisons of the average number of atomic layers in different samples.

Peak “symmetry” can be quantified by a variety of different approaches.For example, the coefficient of determination for a Pseudo-Voigt peakfitting of a single peak is believed to be a relatively robust approach.For this purpose, a standardized procedure for preparing, fitting, andevaluating graphene Raman spectra has been developed and made availableat https://github.com/graphenestandards/raman. For the evaluations belowrelease v1.0 has been used and the permalink to the used script ishttps://github.com/graphenestandards/raman/blob/5cb74ed87545082bd587e4319c061ea2c50e3a6f/DtoG-2Dsymetry.ipynb. Use of this script allows recorded Ramandata to be evaluated in a transparent and uniform manner and allowscomparisons between values obtained in different laboratories.

In further detail, Raman spectra are recorded using 532 nm laserexcitation between 1260 and 2810 reciprocal centimeters and a spectralresolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters. The spectral rangefor 2D band evaluation is cut to between 2555 and 2810 reciprocalcentimeters. A linear baseline is subtracted by fitting a straight lineto the data, while omitting the range of the 2D band between 2600 and2790 reciprocal centimeters. The result is subtracted from the data.Spectra with a signal-to-noise ratio (determined as the squared varianceof the data divided by the squared variance of the residuals of thebaseline fit) below 5000 are discarded, since it is believed that theydo not allow for reliable evaluation of the peak shape. It is believedto be necessary that more than 100 spectra should remain forsufficiently meaningful results to be obtained. A Pseudo-Voigt peak isfitted by a least-squares minimization to the baseline corrected data,with the center constrained between 2650 and 2750 reciprocalcentimeters, the full width at half maximum constrained to 10 to 240reciprocal centimeters, the Gaussian to Lorentzian fraction constrainedto 0.01 to 1, and the amplitude to positive values. To limit the impactof detector noise, the fit residuals and the Raman intensity data aresmoothed by calculating the running average of data between 2600 and2790 reciprocal centimeters with a window of five datapoints after thefitting. From the obtained values, the coefficient of determination iscalculated as the variance of the smoothed residuals divided by thevariance of the smoothed Raman intensity data and subtracting the resultfrom one.

This procedure yields the coefficient of determination of the 2D singlepeak fitting (2D R²), which is believed to be a measure for the symmetryof the 2D Raman band of graphite and graphene. Values close to one arebelieved to indicate a high symmetry of the 2D band and lower valuesbelieved to indicate an increasing asymmetry of the 2D band.

If the evaluated graphite or graphene is has a D/G area ratio below 0.5,the symmetry of the 2D band is believed to be indicative of the averagethickness of flakes. In this regard, defect-rich materials often display2D peak asymmetry for very thin layers and even monolayers. On the otherhand, sometimes an otherwise clear asymmetry of thicker layers isscreened by the very large width of the 2D peak, which is typical formaterials with a high D/G area ratio. For these reasons, the 2D bandsymmetry evaluation of the flake thickness was only applied formaterials fulfilling the criterion of a D/G area ratio below 0.5. A highsymmetry is believed to indicate a relative low number of AB stackedlayers, for example, less than 10 layers, for example, less than fivelayers or even a single layer. An increasing layer number corresponds todecreasing values of the coefficient of determination of the 2D singlepeak fitting (2D R²).

After de-hydrogenation, the D/G area ratio is below 0.5 and anevaluation of the 2D peak symmetry becomes possible. A Raman spectrum ofthe same location shown in FIG. 4a (i.e., after the thermal treatment at800° C. for 30 minutes at 2 mbar in N₂) was measured and the coefficientof determination was derived using the procedure described above. Theresults are given in TABLE 2.

TABLE 2 Coefficient of Determination for a single Pseudo-Voigt peakfitting of the 2D peak Unseparated Separated and dehydrogenated ELICARBExpanded Graphite before dehydrogenated L2136 graphite layers GRAPHENEgraphite electrochemical graphite layers expanded 116 in >100 in >100L2136 in >100 expansion in >100 116 graphite μm thick film μm thick filmμm thick film μm thick film R2 > 0.980 97.97% 1.11% 76.58% 88.79% 0.85%7.44% R2 > 0.990 88.4% 0.00% 61.26% 43.10% 0.00% 0.00% R2 > 0.995 67.83%0.00% 45.05% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

For the separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers 116, more than 80%of the spectra displayed an R² better than 0.99, while flakes ofexpanded graphite L2136 displayed no spectra with an R² better than0.99.

To help ensure that the samples of individual flakes were representativeof the original composition of the materials, an additional procedurewas used. A viscous suspension of the flakes in mesitylene was prepared.This suspension was spread on a glass carrier to form a black film ofmany stacked particles with an area of at least 1×1 mm². The area wassmooth enough to allow for μ-Raman spectroscopy. Raman spectra wererecorded using 532 nm laser excitation between 1260 and 2810 reciprocalcentimeters and a spectral resolution better than 1.8 reciprocalcentimeters. The excitation power was set to avoid excessive localheating, for example, below 5 mW using a 100× objective. One hundred andtwenty one spectra were recorded on a 1×1 mm² area with a spacing of 0.1mm. The resulting R² value are described above and given in TABLE 2. Forthe separated and dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 (800° C., 2 mbar,30 minutes), more than 50% of the spectra displayed an R² larger than0.99, for example, more than 60%, more than 80%, or more than 85%displayed an R² larger than 0.99. Indeed, for the separated anddehydrogenated graphite layers 116 (800° C., 2 mbar, 30 minutes), morethan 40% of the spectra displayed an R² larger than 0.995, for example,more than 50%, or more than 65% displayed an R² larger than 0.995.

In the source graphite material (e.g., the graphite introduced intoapparatus 1), more than 90% of the spectra had an R² smaller than 0.98and no spectra had an R² larger than 0.99. More than 40% of the spectrataken of ELICARB graphene showed an R² better than 0.99, but no spectrahad an R² better than 0.995. More than 10% of the spectra from bothunseparated and separated dehydrogenated graphite layers 116 had an R²better than 0.995, for example more than 40%, or, for example, more than60%.

Although the relationship between the 2D peak symmetry to the averagethickness of AB stacked layers in the flakes is—at present—onlyqualitative, many researchers believe that asymmetry in the 2D peakarises due to more than one atomic layer of AB stacked graphite, forexample more than 10 atomic layers of AB stacked graphite. Turbostraticstacking—that is stacking of flakes in a random orientation—does notappear to lead to peak asymmetry but rather to broadening of the 2Dpeak. Thus, it may not be possible to distinguish between singleatomic-layer flakes and flakes with more than one, for example, morethan 10 atomic layers if the stacking of those layers is turbostratic.

Many researchers also believe that more than 10 AB stacked layersresults in clear asymmetry of the 2D band in Raman spectroscopy. FIG. 6shows example 2D peak spectra of various samples. In particular, FIG. 6ashows spectroscopic data 605 and a least-square error fitted peak 610for graphite suitable for use as a starting material in apparatus 1.FIG. 6b shows spectroscopic data 615 and a least-square error fittedpeak 620 for ELICARB GRAPHENE. FIG. 6c shows spectroscopic data 625 anda least-square error fitted peak 630 for a first sample of separated anddehydrogenated graphite layers 116. FIG. 6d shows spectroscopic data 635and a least-square error fitted peak 640 for a second sample ofseparated and dehydrogenated graphite layers 116.

These images illustrate that the R² thresholds of 0.98, 0.99 and 0.995are capable of distinguishing between peaks with different symmetries.Based on these results, we estimate that 50% or more of the grapheneproduced by electrochemical expansion followed by heat treatment hasfewer than 10 AB-stacked atomic layers, for example, more than 60% ormore than 70% has fewer than ten AB-stacked atomic layers. Further, wealso estimate that more than 10% of the graphene produced byelectrochemical expansion followed by heat treatment is single-layergraphene, for example, more than 20% or more or 50%.

In contrast, we estimate that more than 90% of the source graphitematerial suitable for introduction into apparatus 1 has 10 or moreAB-stacked layers. We also estimate that more than 90% of conventionallyexpanded graphite has more than 10 AB-stacked layers, for example morethan 95% or more than 99%.

The hydrogenated and dehydrogenated graphite materials described hereincan be used in semiconductor devices (e.g., in transistors). Thegraphite materials can also be used in display screens such a touchscreens, solar cells, and in nanotechnological devices. The graphitematerials can also be used as a component electrodes in supercapacitorsand batteries, such as, e.g., lithium, lithium-compound, and non-lithiumbatteries. The graphite materials can also be used as conductive layers,e.g., as conductive transparent layers. The graphite materials can alsobe used in inks and paints, including functional inks and paints. Thegraphite materials can also be used in composites, for example, withpolymers or metals, including applications as thermal interfacematerials or electromagnetic shielding.

A number of implementations have been described. Nevertheless, it willbe understood that various modifications may be made. For example, avariety of different solvents and dispersants can be used. Polydisperseand inhomogeneous graphene samples can be treated to reducepolydispersity and/or improve homogeneity. For example, the distributionof sizes can be adjusted by filtering or centrifugation. The amount ofhydrogenation can be adjusted by the conditions of the electrochemicalreaction, for example, by adjusting the voltage used and the watercontent. The layer number distribution can be changed by sedimentation,centrifugation, or other techniques.

As another example, hydrogenated graphite layers can be dehydrogenatedby photo treatment. For example, visible light, UV, and microwaves canall be used to drive the dehydrogenating of hydrogenated graphitelayers, hence decreasing the D/G area ratio, which is believed tocorrespond to a decrease in the defect density. FIG. 5 is a graph of apair of overlaid Raman spectra of hydrogenated graphite layers 106 of asingle location after drop-casting from suspension 125 and drying at300° C. In particular, spectrum 505 was collected prior to and spectrum510 was collected after laser irradiation at around 25 mW at the focusof a 100× objective for a few seconds under atmospheric conditions. Asshown, the D/G area ratio decreases by more than a factor of five. Thisindicates a conversion of hydrogenated graphite layers 106 todehydrogenated graphite layers 116.

Accordingly, other implementations are within the scope of the followingclaims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A composition comprising: dehydrogenated graphitecomprising a plurality of flakes having at least one flake in 10 havinga size in excess of 10 square micrometers, an average thickness of 10atomic layers or less, and a defect density characteristic of at least50% of μ-Raman spectra of the de-hydrogenated graphite collected at 532nm excitation with a resolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimetershaving a D/G area ratio below 0.5, wherein the composition is acomposite and at least 5% of sp³ hybridized carbon sites of thecomposition are one or more of a) functionalized with a non-hydrogenchemical group, b) cross-linked with sp³ hybridized carbon sites ofanother flake.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein more than 60% ofμ-Raman spectra of the de-hydrogenated graphite have the coefficient ofdetermination value larger than 0.99.
 3. The composition of claim 1,wherein more than 40% of the μ-Raman spectra of the de-hydrogenatedgraphite have the coefficient of determination value larger than 0.995.4. The composition of claim 1, wherein at least one flake in six has asize in excess of 10 square micrometers.
 5. The composition of claim 1,wherein at least one flake in ten has a size in excess of 25 squaremicrometers.
 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the averagethickness is seven atomic layers or less.
 7. The composition of claim 1,wherein the defect density is characteristic of at least 80% of thecollected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.5.
 8. The compositionof claim 1, wherein the defect density is characteristic of at least 50%of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio below 0.2.
 9. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the composition is a particulate powderof dehydrogenated graphite flakes.
 10. The composition of claim 1,wherein the plurality of the flakes of the dehydrogenated graphite arewrinkled, crumpled, or folded.
 11. The composition of claim 1, whereinthe full width half maximum of the G peak in μ-Raman spectra of thede-hydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitation with aresolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters is larger than 20reciprocal centimeters.
 12. A composition comprising: a reversiblyhydrogenated graphite comprising a plurality of flakes having at leastone flake in 10 having a size in excess of 10 square micrometers, acoefficient of determination value of 2D single peak fitting of μ-Ramanspectra of the graphite after thermal treatment in inert atmosphere at 2mbar and 800° C., collected at 532 nm excitation with a resolutionbetter than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters, of larger than 0.99 for morethan 50% of the spectra, and a defect density characteristic of μ-Ramanspectra of the hydrogenated graphite collected at 532 nm excitation witha resolution better than 1.8 reciprocal centimeters and an excitationpower below 2 mW at the focus of an 100× objective having an average D/Garea ratio being between 0.2 and 4, wherein the majority of the defectsare reversible hydrogenation of sp³-hybridized carbon sites away fromthe edges of the flakes, and wherein the composition is a composite andat least 5% of sp³ hybridized carbon sites of the composition are one ormore of a) functionalized with a non-hydrogen chemical group, b)cross-linked with sp³ hybridized carbon sites of another flake.
 13. Thecomposition of claim 12, wherein more than 60% of μ-Raman spectra of thegraphite have the coefficient of determination value larger than 0.99.14. The composition of claim 13, wherein more than 40% of the μ-Ramanspectra of the graphite have the coefficient of determination valuelarger than 0.995.
 15. The composition of claim 13, wherein at least oneflake in ten has a size in excess of 25 square micrometers.
 16. Thecomposition of claim 13, wherein the average thickness is seven atomiclayers or less.
 17. The composition of claim 13, wherein the defectdensity is characteristic of at least 50% of the μ-Raman spectracollected at 532 nm excitation with a resolution better than 1.8reciprocal centimeters and an excitation power below 2 mW at the focusof an 100× objective having a D/G area ratio above 0.5.
 18. Thecomposition of claim 13, wherein the defect density is characteristic ofat least 50% of the collected spectra having a D/G area ratio above 0.8.19. The composition of claim 13, wherein the defect density ischaracteristic of the average D/G area ratio being between 0.4 and 2.20. The composition of claim 13, wherein at least 60% of the defects arereversible hydrogenation of sp^(a)-hybridized carbon sites away from theedges of the flakes.
 21. An apparatus for the expansion of the graphiteto graphene with at least one container provided for receiving anelectrolyte, at least one anode and at least one cathode, characterizedin that the cathode contains diamond or consists thereof.
 22. Theapparatus of claim 21, further comprising a separator which separatesthe anode from the cathode.
 23. The apparatus according to claim 22,characterized in that the separator is in contact with the surface ofthe anode or that the separator is diamond and/orpolytetrafluoroethylene and/or Al₂O₃ and/or ceramic and/or quartz and/orglass contains or consists thereof.
 24. The apparatus according to claim22, further comprising a drive means with which the separator, andoptionally the anode, are rotatable.
 25. The apparatus according toclaim 22, characterized in that the separator, and optionally the anodeare displaceably mounted, so that the distance between the cathode andthe separator is changeable in operation of the apparatus.
 26. Theapparatus according to claim 21, further comprising an electric voltagesupply set up to apply a DC voltage of from about 5 V to about 60 Vbetween the anode and cathode, or from about 15 V to about 30 V, whereinthe voltage is optionally pulsed.
 27. The apparatus according to claim21, further comprising a feed apparatus by which electrolyte andgraphite particles can be fed as a dispersion into the at least onecontainer and/or further comprising a discharge apparatus by whichelectrolyte and graphene flakes are dischargable from the at least onecontainer as a dispersion.